Identity Essays - Gender Studies, Gender, Social Psychology

Identity What influences a person's identity? Is it their homes, parents, religion, or maybe where they live? When do they get one? Do they get it when they understand right from wrong, or when they can read, or are they born with it? Everyone has one and nobody has the same, is there a point in everyone's life when they get one? A person's identity is his own, nobody put it there and nobody can take it out. Everyone in this world has a different identity because they all make their own over the course of their life. A person's identity also causes a person to have masculine and feminine traits. There is no one thing that gives a person their identity, there are however many different factors that contribute to one's identity. What is someone's identity? Is it the way they look, the way they dress, or it could be many things all put together, or is it none of the above? To me someone's identity is a part of their being. Nobody will ever hold it, touch it, or even see it, but it is there. Everybody has one, it guilds your decision making, your thoughts, ideas, and dreams. You may think something is terrible while someone else does not even care and yet another person may laugh, why? The answer is simple, everyone has his own identity and personality. Everyone feels, acts, thinks, and dreams differently. People may have some of these things in common with one another, but they will not be totally the same, it is like a fingerprint, unique. There are many origins to a person's identity, their family, friends, home life, religion, environment and others. But how does it get there, you do not go into a store and pick on off the shelf. A person's identity is developed over many years and put together by the person themselves. It comes from the individuals ability to think, reason and form an opinion. Nobody has the same mind, or the same or the same conscious, so how could anyone have the same identity as another. A person's identity is developed over many years from the time they become aware of their surroundings, to the time they decide if they are going to college, and even as they grow old there identity will change with them. As people's dreams are dreamed and goals are accomplished their identities will change with the individual. Their aspirations and values will change, causing their identities to change with it. It may be a slight alteration or a major overhaul but there identity will adjust to the person. One of the factors of forming an identity will obviously be your family. One's family if invaluable to them. Your family may not be your biological parents or ever a blood relative at all, but nobody in this world can live from birth without some one. But no matter who it is, they will be the people who take care of you when you are sick or aid you when you need help. These people will be there with you for a long time and yes they will have a major impact on what you turn out to be it the future. A lot off people are fortunate enough to live with a mother and a father, they may ever have some brothers and sisters to play with as they grow up. But ever with the same family influences, brothers and sisters still do not have the same identities Some may even say having a "traditional" family would be bad for the development of an identity. For example, what kind identity would a young girl develop if see repeatedly saw her father beat on her mother. She would probably not feel the sam e as another girl whose father always showed love and caring for her mother. What about a teenager who used drugs as often as he changed his underwear. Would his younger brother, in looking up to him, feel the same as another boy who grew up never seeing an illegal drug before. If family members have no regard for keeping the other members of the family on the right path to being a good

Cosmetic Surgery

Cosmetic Surgery Free Online Research Papers Cosmetic Surgery is a subspecialty of medicine and surgery that uniquely restricts itself to the enhancement of appearance through surgical and medical techniques. It is specifically concerned with maintaining normal appearance, restoring it, or enhancing it beyond the average level toward some aesthetic ideal. Cosmetic Surgery is a multi-disciplinary and comprehensive approach directed to all areas of the head, neck and body. Special skill and knowledge are essential and specialists in Cosmetic Surgery are competent in the anatomy, physiology, pathology and basic sciences. The educational profile of this specialty is unique in that it begins with a fully trained and certified physician. Through continued post-residency education, training and experience, cosmetic surgery is taught and learned across traditional disciplinary boundaries. The subspecialty fully incorporates the participation and knowledge from all contributing disciplines to attain a high level of skill and understanding. Contributing disciplines include dermatology, facial plastic surgery, general surgery, plastic surgery, otolaryngology, oculoplastic surgery, oral-maxillofacial surgery and others. The Cosmetic Surgeon offers specialized expertise in patient education and counseling, procedural skills, and the early recognition and treatment of complications. As a specialty, Cosmetic Surgeons have enhanced the knowledge and training of fellow physicians and directly benefited society through educational publications, scientific journals and in the development of safe and innovative techniques. Competency in Cosmetic Surgery implies a combination of knowledge, surgical judgment, technical expertise and ethics in order to achieve the goal of providing aesthetic improvement. Special skill and knowledge are essential and specialists in Cosmetic Surgery are competent in the anatomy, physiology, pathology and basic sciences. The educational profile of this specialty is unique in that it begins with a fully trained and certified physician. Through continued post-residency education, training and experience, cosmetic surgery is taught and learned across traditional disciplinary boundaries. The subspecialty fully incorporates the participation and knowledge from all contributing disciplines to attain a high level of skill and understanding. Contributing disciplines include dermatology, facial plastic surgery, general surgery, plastic surgery, otolaryngology, oculoplastic surgery, oral-maxillofacial surgery and others. The Cosmetic Surgeon offers specialized expertise in patient education and counseling, procedural skills, and the early recognition and treatment of complications. As a specialty, Cosmetic Surgeons have enhanced the knowledge and training of fellow physicians and directly benefited society through educational publications, scientific journals and in the development of safe and innovative techniques. Competency in Cosmetic Surgery implies a combination of knowledge, surgical judgment, technical expertise and ethics in order to achieve the goal of providing aesthetic improvement. Common reconstructive surgeries are: breast reconstruction for women who have had a mastectomy, cleft lip and palate surgery, contracture surgery for burn survivors, and closing skin and mucosa defects after removal of tumors in the head and neck region. Sex reassignment surgery for transsexual people is another example of reconstructive surgery. Plastic surgeons have developed the use of microsurgery to transfer tissue for coverage of a defect when no local tissue is available. Tissue flaps comprised of skin, muscle, bone, fat or a combination, may be removed from the body, moved to another site on the body and reconnected to a blood supply by suturing arteries and veins as small as 1-2 mm in diameter. There is a definite gray area between reconstructive and cosmetic surgery. Many of the techniques of cosmetic surgery are utilized in reconstructive surgery to improve cosmesis. History of Plastic Surgery The history of plastic surgery began more than 4,000 years ago. Although reconstructive surgery was used in India in 800 BC, the history of plastic surgery moved very slowly for thousands of years, especially in European medicine. In the late 19th century the American medical community embraced reconstructive surgery and the history of plastic surgery in the United States began. The first major American surgeon to make his mark in the history of plastic surgery was Dr. John Peter Mettauer, who performed the first cleft palate operation in the North American history of plastic surgery in 1827 with instruments he designed himself. War played a huge role in the history of plastic surgery. World War I presented physicians with scores of severe facial wounds and burns, changing the history of plastic surgery. Modern weapons caused types and severity of injuries that were unprecedented in the history of plastic surgery. Some of the greatest medical talent devoted themselves fully both to exploring the history of plastic surgery and creating new techniques to treat men maimed by the war. Aesthetic surgery took its place in the history of plastic surgery at around this time, as surgeons fully realized the influence of appearances on individual success. The history of plastic surgery in America owes much to the American Society of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgeons (ASPRS). In the history of plastic surgery, no such organization for American plastic surgeons had existed prior to 1931. Important steps in American history of plastic surgery took place due to the work of this institution, such as recognition of the progress and history of plastic surgery by the American Board of Surgeons. ASPRS members created the first qualifying exam in the history of plastic surgery in the US, and a number of other organizations for promoting the future and history of plastic surgery sprang up in the years that followed. The modern, and more well-known, history of plastic surgery begins in the 1960s and 70s. Plastic surgeons were contributing to the history of plastic surgery in a number of areas, including a Surgeon General, and a Nobel Prize winner. The past few decades in the history of plastic surgery have brought enormous advances in treatment and awareness among the public. As the history of plastic surgery continues to be written, the ways to improve form and function will continue to expand. Reasons encouraging Plastic Surgery 1-Psychological Surgery A surgeons first impressions within an evaluation of a patient often prove most useful for gauging the suitability of a surgical procedure. The patients general appearance, demeanor, and behavior can also serve as indicators of a concealed psychic disturbance. Diagnostic acumen requires an awareness of subtle signs suggestive of potential problems, and the surgeon must practice intuitive observation of the patient at all times. Is the patients dress provocative and alluring? Does the patient retreat from physical contact or actively avoid eye contact? How is the patients affect and mood? Is the voice monotone or easily excitable? Surgeons can expect their patients to be nervous and self-conscious during consultation; however, such patients may need additional observance because nervousness may be an indicator of some emotional disturbance. Anxiety is common at the first meeting and can hamper retention, expression, and comprehension of the goals, benefits, and complications of surger y. Consider a follow-up visit for any patient with suspected emotional instability. Many different personality traits and behavioral clues exist. The categorizing of personalities does not imply an abnormality. In fact, the traits associated with certain personality types can be useful and adaptive because they allow the patients to tolerate anxiety, solve problems, and cope with a variety of lifes stresses. However, patients with some personality types are not well suited for cosmetic surgery; these personality types are categorized according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) as personality disorders. They include schizoid, paranoid, histrionic, and depressive personality disorders. Patients with these personality disorders deserve closer attention because the personality disorders are often associated with psychiatric complications, and the patients are unfit for cosmetic surgery. Schizoid personality disorder Individuals with schizoid personality disorder are described as being socially withdrawn, introverted, eccentric, and uncomfortable with others. Such patients often express vague reasons for wanting aesthetic surgery and are unable to supply precise goals for the procedure even after further questioning. The patient may request surgery because it would be better to look that way. Characteristically, these patients avoid eye contact, show little emotion, and have difficulty relaxing during consultation with the physician. They make few, if any, spontaneous comments, and they answer questions without elaboration. Paranoid personality disorder Paranoia refers to a pervasive and unwarranted skepticism of others. The individual with paranoid personality disorder is most commonly a young, unmarried male. The patient is often a loner and hypersensitive. Individuals with paranoid personality disorder are likely to have an unstable work history, to present themselves as innocent victims of unfairness, and to place blame on others. Patients with this disorder can appear tense, guarded, and secretive. Histrionic personality disorder Individuals with histrionic personality disorder are often excessively emotional and seek constant attention. They are colorful with labile and shallow emotional responses, from laughing easily to bursting into tears. These patients can use their fantastic displays of emotion and appearance to control others. They have an intense need for attention, and they seek it through their external appearance, about which they are excessively worried. During an interview, patients with histrionic personality disorder constantly seek reassurance, approval, or praise. They often have a style of speech that is highly impressionistic. For example, when the patient is asked to describe his or her mother, the answer may not be more specific than, She was a beautiful person. Depressive personality disorder Patients who have depressive personality disorder do not necessarily desire cosmetic surgery; rather, they may be prone to seek it believing that an enhanced physical appearance will improve their feelings about themselves. Body dysmorphic disorder Unlike different personality traits and normal concerns about ones appearance, the preoccupation with appearance in body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is excessively time-consuming and associated with significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning. BDD is a psychiatric illness. The defect in appearance is either imagined or slight. The preoccupation is also not better accounted for by another mental disorder. Proper selection of patients for aesthetic surgery must start with an effective assessment of the psychology, of which motivation is perhaps the most important part. Patients motives for seeking aesthetic surgery are as numerous as the patients themselves, and not every reason or person desiring the surgery is suitable. Motivation may stem from various sources. Because aesthetic surgeons typically do not receive formal training in psychiatry, they often have difficulty in correctly diagnosing the true motives. Consequently, aesthetic surgeons attempting to distinguish patients as emotionally appropriate or inappropriate often rely on their own experience, teachings of their mentor, or simply a gestalt approach. Not all internal or external motivations are appropriate for surgery. Several examples of external motivation deserve a closer examination. The need to please others (eg, husband, relatives, lover, strangers) often arises from the false belief that a change in outward appearance will produce results such as saving a marriage or improving a relationship. Of course, this notion is rarely true and may indicate something more serious with the patient. Furthermore, patients who are pressured into cosmetic surgery may be passive about the procedure and are not suitable candidates. The appropriate patient is active in deciding to pursue surgery and is not influenced by others. The intensity of the motivation has been demonstrated to be negatively correlated with postoperative pain and positively associated with a shorter postoperative course and satisfaction. Seeking cosmetic surgery as a way to advance ones career often results in more disappointment than satisfaction after surgery. Despite the generally held notion that more attractive persons are more successful, using plastic surgery as the means to such an end is often ill-advised. Conversely, if the patient is aware that successful surgery does not ensure career advancement, the patient may use the enhanced appearance more effectively. Patients citing internal motives for aesthetic surgery are generally considered good candidates. Internal motivations may be described as long-standing feelings about deficiencies in physical appearance and a strong commitment to physical change. However, the definition of a facial deficiency differs widely among patients and needs an individualized elucidation. A condition that appears as a slight consequence to the surgeon may not appear as such to the patient. The line separating a genuine deficiency from a perceived deficiency is often indefinite. No proportional relationship exists between the disfigurement and the mental attitude it engenders in the patient. Candidates with the appropriate internal motivation temporarily seem to lack adaptation to a particular situation. The psychological state reflects a definite physical defect, and surgical restoration relieves the anxiety. This is very different from a patient for whom the disfigurement is the only focus. For such a patient, once one part of the face is fixed, the patient quickly finds another symptom through which to channel the neurosis. 2-Physiological A. Preauthorization is not required for plastic surgery benefits. Benefits may be provided for cosmetic, reconstructive, and/or plastic surgery, including otherwise covered services and supplies under the following circumstances: 1. Correction of a congenital anomaly, i.e., a condition that exists from birth and that is a significant deviation or departure from the norm and is other than a common racial or ethnic feature (examples of such conditions include, cleft lip/cleft palate, birthmarks, webbed fingers or webbed toes, or surgery to correct pectus excavatum is covered as correction of a congenital anomaly when the defect is more than a minor anatomical anomaly). 2. Restoration of body form (including revision of scars) following an accidental injury. 3. Revision of disfiguring and extensive scars resulting from hypertrophic contractures, keloids, and neoplastic surgery. Note: Keloid revision requires medical review of medical documentation that includes history, size, location, and symptoms. 4. Panniculectomy performed in conjunction with other abdominal or pelvic surgery is covered when medical review determines that the procedure significantly contributes to the safe and effective correction or improvement of bodily function. (See Exclusions). 5. Penile implants and testicular prostheses for conditions resulting from organic origins or organic impotency. 6. Liposuction when used as a substitute for the scalpel is covered when medically necessary, appropriate, and the standard of care. 7. Augmentation mammoplasty, reduction mammoplasty, and mastopexy surgery performed on one breast for contra lateral symmetry to bring it into symmetry with a post-mastectomy reconstructed breast Risk Related to the Surgery Skin Death or Necrosis: usually follows an infection or hematoma and is much more likely among smokers. The skin is excised (surgically removed) and this may affect the cosmetic outcome. Asymmetry: moderate or severe asymmetries may require a second surgery. Mild asymmetry is normal. Slow Healing: due to age, skin type, failure to follow doctors advice or factors beyond anyones control. Numbness/Tingling: often temporary, sometimes permanent loss of sensation. This results from injury to sensory or motor nerves. Irregularities, dimples, puckers, and divots: can be due to surgeon error, healing irregularities or body make-up. Seroma: fluid can collect under the skin and can occur after breast augmentation, liposuction or a tummy tuck. What You Should Know About the Safety of Outpatient Plastic Surgery Plastic surgery procedures performed in accredited surgical facilities by board-certified plastic surgeons have an excellent safety record. A 1997 survey1 based on more than 400,000 operations performed in accredited facilities found that: The rate of serious complications was less than half of 1 percent. The mortality rate was extremely low – only one in 57,000 cases. The overall risk of serious complications in an accredited office surgical facility is comparable with the risk in a freestanding surgical center or hospital ambulatory surgical facility. You will also be evaluated for other factors that may increase the risk of blood clots. These include: being extremely overweight having recent traumatic injury any disorder of the heart, lungs or central nervous system a history of cancer, recurrent severe infection or genetic problems that affect blood clotting For women, additional risk factors include: taking oral contraceptives or having recently ceased taking them undergoing hormone-replacement therapy Plastic Surgery Today Cosmetic Surgery is becoming more and more popular throughout the United States. Each year, several million Americans undergo surgery to improve their appearance. A recent survey published in Psychology Today indicates that 40 percent of Americans are dissatisfied with the shape of their noses and 25 percent are dissatisfied with the shape of their chins and necks. Furthermore, 30 percent of cosmetic surgery is performed on men, and this percentage continues to increase. More and more people are realizing that cosmetic surgery is now affordable. They recognize plastic surgeons are highly skilled specialists with specific training and an understanding of todays aesthetics. More than ever before, senior citizens have gained greater respect and a more active role in society – our seniors are living longer, staying fit and leading more active lives. Unfortunately, the aging process persists, leaving people looking older than they feel. Is it any wonder than that many are turning to cosmetic surgery to restore a more youthful appearance? Todays America emphasizes a more youthful appearance regardless of ones chronological age. The business community commonly chooses the more attractive individual to fill an available position. A recent ABC documentary report clearly depicted an overwhelming preference for hiring a more attractive person if two applicants otherwise had exactly the same credentials. Clearly, many patients who undergo cosmetic surgery do so for economic reasons. Not only is this true for the fashion model, public figure, entertainment personality, corporate executive or professional person, but for anyone whose work or lifestyle requires that they interact with the public. A renowned psychologist reports that for students, good looks affect school grades. Furthermore, he states that ones appearance can also determine who will become friends, and affects the probability of prosperity Surgical procedures which were once thought to be only for the rich and famous are now commonly affordable and undertaken by men and women with average incomes. People save up for a much desired cosmetic procedure similar to saving for a piece of jewelry. These people feel that they are investing in themselves to improve their self-image and lifestyle. They recognize the affordability of cosmetic surgery and its potential returns. Goals and Expectations Prior to undergoing any plastic surgery procedure, the patient must possess a realistic attitude based on emotional maturity: The goal of surgery is improvement, not perfection. Any patient expecting perfection is not being realistic and should not have the procedure performed. Not every patient is a good candidate for surgery. Surgery is not recommended for everyone who requests it. A surgeon is a physician working within the biologic limitations of healing. The degree of success depends not only on the surgeons skills but also the age, health, skin texture, bone structure, and the specific problems and expectations of the patient. Understanding the above limitations, both the surgeon and patient may project the possible outcome. Examine the One Step Theory of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery: Should all go well, a one step improvement would be a reasonable expectation. It would be unethical for any physician to guarantee the results of any treatment performed. The only guarantee that can be made is to do the best work possible for the patient. An unrealistic motivation for cosmetic surgery precludes satisfying results. Although improvement in appearance may be psychologically beneficial by increasing self-esteem and self-confidence, cosmetic surgery is not the cure-all for all problems. Particularly, if one blames his or her appearance for lack of success or happiness in life, the patients expectations may be surgically unobtainable or too risky. Each person is encouraged to discuss any concerns or fears with their surgeon. The patient should not expect to receive universal approval from family, friends, and acquaintances after the surgery is performed. Although pain and discomfort following cosmetic surgery are relatively small, the patient needs the maturity to accept any postoperative condition as temporary. Swelling, discomfort, firmness, and discoloration are typical for a short time after surgery. Any incision heals together by producing a scar. The surgeon has control over placement of the scars but no control over the healing process once the surgery is completed. In the initial healing period, scar lines will be pink and lumpy. They usually fade and become pale with time. While significant improvement can be seen in the first few weeks, subtle changes continue for the following year. Finally, the patients attitude and health and adherence to the pre- and postoperative instructions play an important role in the success of the surgery. Each patient is strongly encouraged to see their personal physician for a check-up before surgery. Patients having eye surgery should see their eye doctor for an examination and visual field exam before having surgery. Minor facial asymmetries are common amongst most people. Noting these subtleties before your consultation is imperative to understand the limitations of surgery. If you are considered low risk, your doctor may simply ensure that you are positioned on the operating table in a way that allows for adequate blood circulation to the legs. If you are of moderate or high risk for developing blood clots, you may also be advised to wear elastic stockings before, during and after your procedure, or to take special anti-clotting medications. Compression devices on the legs may be used during surgery to support your normal circulation. Costs of top plastic surgery procedures 2001 STATISTICS (National Average) PROCEDURE SURGEON/PHYSICIAN FEE Botox ® injection $387 Breast implant removal $2,086 Breast augmentation $3,437 Breast lift $4,053 Breast reduction $5,508 Breast reduction in men $3,184 Buttock lift $4,720 Cellulite massage treatment $160 Cheek implant $2,694 Chemical peel $516 Chin augmentation $2,024 Collagen injection $333 Dermabrasion $1,590 Ear surgery $2,914 Eyelid surgery $2,666 Facelift $5,968 Fat injection $1,053 Fibril injection $440 Forehead lift $3,032 Laser hair removal $355 Laser skin resurfacing $2,241 Laser treatment of leg veins $402 Lip implants $1,701 Liposuction $2,704 Lower body lift $7,625 Microdermabrasion $146 Rhinoplasty $4,047 Sclerotherapy $317 Thigh lift $4,487 Tummy tuck $4,917 Upper arm lift $3,527 Plastic Surgery Mistakes Plastic surgery mistakes can occur during any procedure, performed by any doctor, although a number of plastic surgery mistakes can be avoided through proper screening by the patient. Some examples of plastic surgery mistakes include improperly performed procedures, surgical errors, and poor post-operative care. Plastic surgery mistakes in facial procedures are generally the most noticeable and often the most difficult to repair. Plastic surgery mistakes made in facial plastic surgery can leave the patient looking wooden or unnatural, and some plastic surgery mistakes result in partial or full paralysis through nerve damage or tightened skin tissue. Plastic surgery mistakes in implant surgery can result in gross disproportion, asymmetry, and dangerous implant leaks. Some plastic surgery mistakes cause excessive scarring, or hardening of body tissues. Plastic surgery mistakes in other parts of the body may be easier to mask, but victims of plastic surgery mistakes deal with many of the same issues, regardless how visible the results of their plastic surgery mistakes may be. The problems of living with the evidence of plastic surgery mistakes are not just physical; individuals suffer emotional and psychological trauma as well. Many plastic surgery mistake victims feel guilty or think that they are being punished for vanity. Many plastic surgery mistakes can be fixed, and there are physicians who specialize in surgically repairing plastic surgery mistakes. Individuals who are seeking plastic surgery can help reduce the chance of plastic surgery mistakes by ensuring that their physician is fully accredited and certified. In the case of a plastic surgery mistake, a reliable physician will often correct the problem at no additional cost. The gain Liposuction or removal of fat may pose special challenges. If a patient comes in who see-saws their weight 50 pounds up and 50 pounds down and they want liposuction, I make sure they tell me about nutrition and exercise habits because liposuction is just one moment in time and they have to be able to maintain the weight loss after surgery. If I remove two to three pounds of fat from their abdomen and they gain 20 pounds, I cant predict where the weight gain will go, she says. Most people are overweight, he says. Liposuction does not replace weight loss and it isnt going to make you thin, but we can improve contours at your current weight, he says. If the outside of your hips have extra bulges and it really affects the way their clothes fit, liposuction can help your clothing fit better and may drop a size and look prettier and thats a good thing. Plastic Surgery: A Scientific Way to reach art Relation of Plastic Surgery with Religion and God As priest and prophet say the plastic surgery is totally wrong because they think that no God book has mentioned something about surgery we have to accept ourselves as we are. Because after god no one is complete. So we conclude that religions are against plastic surgery. Right or Wrong Plastic surgery is right and wrong. Right in few situations for example after an accident (car accident, fire accident, etc†¦) and wrong if we had a surgery without a reason for example as we have now, all girls are same because 99% of them have made the nose surgery and many things for changing their look. Conclusion Knowing When to Say No is the best solution of plastic surgery. Someone who is looking at themselves appropriately with reasonable expectations is typically the best candidates. The bottom line? If you are considering plastic surgery, be sure that the procedure you are asking the doctor to do will meet your goals. Make sure that the surgeon you choose is certified by the American Board of Plastic Surgery (ABPS) and a member of ASAPS. References http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmetic_surgery betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Cosmetic_surgery?open www.plasticsurgery.org/public_education/ procedures/psychological_aspects.cfm a1-termpaper.com/med-gen.shtmlbetterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Cosmetic_surgery?open www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/03/050308093353.htm surgery.org/ Research Papers on Cosmetic SurgeryArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)Standardized TestingInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesGenetic EngineeringAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyOpen Architechture a white paperThe Project Managment Office SystemResearch Process Part One

Contracts As a Common Phenomenon in the Business Sector Case Study

Contracts As a Common Phenomenon in the Business Sector - Case Study Example Formalities required by law have been reduced and currently, only a few formalities get required. Formalities on signing of deals and putting contracts in writing have been abolished. This has made contracting easier as parties have less legal processes involved when making such contracts. This means that oral agreements are acceptable. However, contracting in this way can be disadvantageous as parties can misinterpret, misunderstand or misremember the terms of the contract (Howells & Schulze 2009, pp.125). In a case where the agreement gets made over the telephone, the terms of the agreements should be put in writing for clear future references. Oral agreements should be summarized in writing to protect the terms of the contract from misinterpretation. In the case provided, some of the agreements made got reached over the phone. It could have been advisable that John puts such an agreement in writing. The law further provides for cases when a contract must be put in writing. This includes a case where a contract contains a guarantee. In John’s case, the agreement did not contain any guarantee. Putting the terms of the agreements in writing was, therefore, not necessary. There are several advantages that come with putting the terms of an agreement in writing. One such advantage is that formal writing is less prone to manipulation and misinterpretation as it is the case with oral agreements. When parties put their agreement in writing, copies can be made and preserved by both parties. Both parties get obliged to follow these agreements. Another advantage is that written agreements have the option of including signatures which commit the parties to that agreement (Howells & Schulze 2009, pp.125). However, considering the nature of

What are GMOs What is the controversy that sounds them Essay

What are GMOs What is the controversy that sounds them - Essay Example Today the term GMO is mainly being used to refer to the production of genetically modified food products. This is because with the assistance of genetic modification process, scientists have been able to produce agricultural products and these products have started replacing naturally grown agricultural products. Production of food products through the process of genetic modification is escalating day by day and it has already been recorded that crops that have been genetically modified are being planted over an area of more than 100 million hectares in various underdeveloped and developed regions (Pinstrup-Andersen 76). The reason for the increase in production of genetically modified crops is that these crops can be produced in a much effective and efficient manner and these crops are being considered as one of the solutions to the issue of world hunger and depleting resources. Even though there is an increase in the production and demand for genetically modified crops and food pro ducts, several controversies have surrounded the important segment of the society. These controversies include the public’s perception regarding GM foods, the impact of GM foods on human health and wellbeing and the labeling of these food products. The perception of the consumers is one of the major issues that are surrounding GMOs. The problem is that people are confused whether GMOs are healthy or they pose a threat to the lives of human beings. It has not yet been established that GMOs do not harm the health and wellbeing of human beings. Researchers have even ended up with contradictory research. Certain researchers have established that GMOs are healthy for human beings while certain have even proved that GMOs can negatively impact the health and wellbeing of human beings. The distributed and varying perception of the public is a major concern for the future and acceptability of GMOs. Magnusson conducted a research on the perception of the general public

Traditional Classical Theory Verses Positivist Theory

Traditional Classical Theory Verses Positivist Theory The reason for choosing Classical versus Positivist Theory is that these two theories were the basis of argument before the Twentieth Century, and, if studied, one could understand the discrepancies of crime theories and debates when dealing with the law, psychiatrists and deterrence(Padhy, 2006).Crime theories emerge from the study of criminology(Padhy, 2006). Criminology is a sociological branch of study utilising crime statistics, psychology and law and the scientific study of human bodies to research criminal behaviour(Padhy, 2006). To understand the implications of criminal behaviour, we need to understand crime, defined when a human being breaks the law realising this varies between countries due to different cultures and values(Padhy, 2006). The law is defined by what the legislature says, thus crime is determined by what these law agencies decide(Fletcher, 1985). Historically, Beccaria and Benthan in the Eighteenth Century emerged with the Classical Tradition of Crime, focuss ing on punishment and the crime committed(Padhy, 2006). In the Nineteenth Century with scientific enlightenment, Lombroso brought a new theory to discussion focussing on the criminal(Padhy, 2006). Positivism was based on determinism contrasting with Classical Tradition based on rationality. This forgoes individual choice and holds biological and psychological predisposition responsible, giving a new consideration for judges because of a new understanding on criminal behaviour(Padhy, 2006). In discussing the nature of human beings, Classical Theorists say that individuals possess the ability to make choices(Beccaria, 1778). Human beings are able to participate in any activity not contrary to legislation, giving free choice(Beccaria, 1778). It is when humans take this right of choice and cause damage to lives and autonomy of citizens that crime is committed(Beccaria, 1778). Both theories view crime as a breach of security causing an interruption to a peaceful society(Beccaria, 1778). Classical Theorists focus on the dependant variables of crime looking at the crime itself, compared to Positivism which focuses primarily on the independent variables of the individual and what caused this act(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). The Classical School of Crime was developed for the purpose of defining criminals as rationale human beings acting to gain benefits, where legislation was aimed to increase peace and maximise welfare(Carnis, 2004). Discussing the nature of human beings within Positivism says that human behaviour is governed by laws of nature, thus crime is predetermined(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990a). It emerged during the enlightenment period in response to specific theory testing by correlations and relationships between measured variables(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). Positivist Theory encompasses the idea that human behaviour is the product of causal forces over which individuals or collectivities have little control(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990 p.418). Rejecting Classical Theories, Biological Positivism focuses on empirical evidence from the study of twins, families and genetics to emphasise the biological determinants of criminology(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). Eysenck forms both Biological and Psychological Positivism, where upbringing is a form of conditioning to crime to gain a conscience of what is bad or good(Eysneck, 2006). There are two kinds of character types, introvert or extrovert. Introverts are mo re set in characteristics and difficult to condition or de-condition, whereas extroverts are easily conditioned(Eysneck, 1977). Eysenck suggests that a failure of conditioning to develop a good conscience is the cause of criminal behaviour (Eysneck, 1977). Eysenck suggests that punishment followed soon after crime can re-condition these individuals away from criminal behaviours similar to Classical Theory(Eysneck, 1977). In explaining the cause of criminal behaviour, Classical Theory explains that humans pursue happiness and pleasure and want to avoid pain(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). With free will and choice comes the influence of that individuals environment where it may limit or promote criminal behaviour(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). For an individual to commit a crime they must use force and fraud to achieve self-happiness or advantage(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). In Classical Theories motivation comes from the human and is the cause of crime. Motivation is the key in defining why the perpetrator carried out the crime, and focuses on how the target made this crime accessible(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). After the development of Positivism, thoughts of rational decisions and preconceptions of Classical Theory had to be re-evaluated(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). Scientists had a new outlook based on experimental methods to question previous rational schemes that dominated criminal theories before the Nineteenth Century(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). In the view of Positivism the cause of criminal behaviour lies in measured variables(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). Juxtaposed to Classical Theory, for an individual to commit a crime in the eyes of Positivist Theory they must have an inherited trait(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). With Positivism, there is no acceptance of rational behaviour but crime is explained by biological and social phenomenon. This theory emphasises there is a social reason for each specific criminal act, found through research and correlations(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). Characteristics or tendencies that an individual inherits can increase their susceptibility for crimi nal behaviour, thus Positivist criminologists sustain criminals are caused to behave this way(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). Lombroso also described that the cause of criminal behaviours were imbedded in physical characteristics and genetic makeup(Hamlin, n.d) In explaining crime, Traditional Classical Theories claim crime is caused by human beings acting on incentives(Ehrlich, 1996). Humans follow wilful participation of criminal and unlawful acts, explained by their own choices following self-interests(Ehrlich, 1996). Consistent with Classical Theory, Rational Choice Theory which is an extension based centrally in Classical Theory explains that human actions are based on rational choice, weighing up the advantages and disadvantages of the criminal act(Akers, 1990). Criminal activity is committed even with the informed notion of the consequences if one gets caught(Akers, 1990). Disadvantages may outweigh advantages with legal punishment thus the individual will decide not to commit the crime(Akers, 1990). This is where deterrence plays a major role in Classical Theory. The threat of legal and capital punishment aims to offset the advantages and reduce the motivation for crime(Akers, 1990). Deterrence for Classical Theories is aimed at pos itive punishment meaning reduced crime rates due to harsh consequences(Akers, 1990). Cesare Lombroso, the founder of Biological Positivism, used scientific methods to explain crime, forming the theory known as Lombrosian Atavism(Rafter, 2005). His theory is imbedded in atavism, explaining that criminals are evolutionary throwbacks to a primitive human advancement(Rafter, 2005). This earlier stage was focussed on savage behaviours because these had a greater advantage than personal and community skills(Rafter, 2005). He claimed that these socially unacceptable behaviours were inherited, thus individuals were doomed by their physical makeup to break the law'(Rafter, 2005, p.33). Using scientific principles to study the human body and mind, Lombroso said individuals are born as criminals(Rafter, 2005). Their genetic makeup is the explanation for crime; they have a predisposition and have been caused to act this way(Rafter, 2005). The irregularities Lombroso studied, lead him to find relationships between the criminal man and criminal tendencies(Rafter, 2005). Eysenck, s till within Positivism, suggested crime was caused by a lack of conditioning, where behaviour is misguided and guilt is not felt towards criminal behaviours(Eysenck, 1977). Comparing deterrence between the two theories, Classical Theory follows that punishment is measured by the injury that criminal inflicted on society(Beccaria, 1778). Beccaria condemned torture as punishment because it has been falsified in gaining truth, especially about accomplices(Beccaria, 1778). Beccaria believed that punishment should be explained to the criminal and the quicker the punishment after the inflicted crime, the more just and appropriate it will be because of a greater association between crime and punishment(Beccaria, 1778). The point of deterrence in Classical Criminology is to prevent offenders committing further crimes, thus they must realise the extent of their heinous activity, previously hidden behind the advantages of committing the crime(Beccaria, 1778). Within Classical Theory for persecutors or potential offenders deterrence is best given through restraint, physical or situational punishment(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). Historically, punishments were in fi nancial dues to the Prince thus if convicted guilty you were in debt to the Crown(Beccaria, 1778). As Positivism is focussed on the pre-requisite explanation of crime, deterrence or correction in Positivist Theory must aim to identify those people with criminal tendencies, record what caused their behaviour and look at ways to adjust or prevent this behaviour(Lyons, 1977). Eysenck, suggested that if offenders were caught at a young age, they could be re-conditioned, and possibly taught about good behaviours and given a conscience against criminal acts(Eysneck, 1977). In Positivism, persecution is difficult because if the judge accepts genetic inheritance, where is the line drawn as to how much you are accountable for your criminal behaviours. Husted, Myers and Lui(2008) questioned the use of Magnetic Resonance Imaging scans in a court case as to how much these can be accredited to understand the level to which the defendant can blame their genetic makeup. Classical and Positivist Theory cause practical implications when dealing with court orders. Judges in court must use their intuition with evidence to determine guilt(Padhy, 2006). Judges have often been said to move towards a more Classical approach insisting that humans choose to commit the crime because we are free willed and make our own decisions(Padhy, 2006). Courts must issue a sentence in the hope of preventing further criminal behaviour(Padhy, 2006). Classical Criminology emphasised to judges and juries that offenders must be deterred thus preventing further acts of criminality(AIC, 2009). Based on this deterrence, the sentence must be given equally with no regard to race, socioeconomic status and age(AIC, 2009). There is no excuse for genetic determinism if embracing Classical Criminology in the courts so procedures and sentences must be based on what the individual committed(AIC, 2009). This contrasts with Positivism where an individual can blame their genetic makeup. Posi tivism is embraced when dealing with psychologists or psychiatrists where they focus on the deterministic features(Padhy, 2006). They highlight the external environment and internal predispositions under involuntary control, thus blaming criminal behaviour on the lack of choices or free will that individual had(Padhy, 2006). In the late Twentieth Century, classical tradition re-emerged because it was used to explain deviant behaviour in adolescence(Padhy, 2006). There was a rise in juvenile crime and instead of focussing on Positivism the courts had reverted back to Classical and Rational Choice Theory where juvenile offenders were accountable for their crime(Padhy, 2006). After a crime the state had to promptly implement punishment in the hope of stopping this increase in juvenile deviance(Padhy, 2006). Both Classical and Positivist theories have their flaws. Deterrence theories are at the heart of Classical Theories. Sherman, Smith, Schmidt and Rogan(1992) conducted an experiment measuring the effect of punishment on subsequent offenders. They found that punishment and arrest did not reduce subsequent crime in domestic violence, and that in fact arrest increased undesirable behaviour especially in those who were single, unemployed and had low conformity levels(Sherman, Smith, Schmidt Rogan, 1992). This goes against the theory of deterrence in reducing further criminal activities. Positivism denied the main idea of Classical Theorists where the principles of crime causation werent based on free will and choice but focussed that there was a specific cause to that certain crime(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). Positivism is based on empirical evidence thus the new emerging ideas including critical theory, poststructuralism and post modernism are offered as extensions or critiques of Positivism suggesting a way to understand societies of the modern world(Agger, 1991). Within Positivism, it must be understood that criminal acts are consistent with their level of predisposition to crime(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). However Hirschi Gottfredson(1990) report no evidence of this relationship but positive criminologists just conclude the type of crime committed from the empirical evidence that best explains it(Hirschi Gottfredson, 1990). Lombrosian Atavism was critiqued where teachers and textbooks showed vague appreciation of what he contributed to crime theories(Rafter, 2005). Lombrosos work was often ridiculed, being the first to study the characteristics of a born criminal(Rafter, 2005). Lombroso was critiqued for his lack of statistics, and there was speculation he didnt always use control groups(Vedder, Koenig and Clark, 1953; cited by Rafter, 2005). Lombroso was however credited as being the father of introducing scientific method and research into criminology(Rafter, 2005). Briefly commenting on practical and social implications of what has been discussed, Classical Theories allow for no blame on genetics, thus punishment is given in relation to damage caused(Beccaria, 1778). Correction rehabilitation is enforced to stop reoffending(AIC, 1999). Socially, these individuals may be excluded from society with home confinement, correctional centres and psychiatrist treatment and rejected from society because of their criminal stigma(LeBel, 2008). Practically, in Classical Tradition the State has a right to impose punishment to the perpetrator if they caused social harm(Padhy, 2006). Practical implications within Positivism, involves criminologists catching and persecuting criminals, recording their genetic characteristics ascertaining why they are different from non criminals and therefore developing the atavistic criminal(Lyons, 1977). Rehabilitation must focus on how to correct these imbedded criminal behaviours, whilst identifying future individuals with criminal tendencies and placing preventive measures into action. When a law of the state is broken, whether we approve or disapprove of it, is classified as a criminal act(Hart, 1958). Concluding, we have witnessed that Classical Theories hold no presuppositions that cause criminal behaviour, their decision is controlled and not influenced by pre events. Motivation for crime comes from the perpetrator and will show in the nature of criminal acts. Beccaria was the founder of Classical Tradition in the Eighteenth Century, but when the scientific revolution emerged, Positivism was a result of utilising scientific methods. Lombroso used biological explanations for crime, describing the characteristics or stigma of an atavistic criminal. Eysenck focused on both biological determinants for characteristic types and behaviour determinants as an explanation for crime where a lack of developed morals and conscience cause a criminal to not feel guilty. Both theories emphasise deterrence and correction to prevent further criminal behaviours.

Free College Admissions Essays: Attending School in the United States :: College Admissions Essays

My  Dream of Attending School in the United States    Few people handle death well; my family is no exception. We were sitting in our living room and discussing my future educational plans, whether I would study in the US or not, when the phone rang. As my mother hung up the phone, I saw her trembling, trying hard not to cry. She sat on the couch and explained what happened. Grandfather had called to tell us that he carried my grandmother to the hospital because of a critical situation. We knew that she didn't feel well, but nobody thought the situation could become this serious. For a moment, I read the noticeable signs of guilt in my mother's eyes because she was 400 km away when my grandmother needed her. The coming days were not easy for us. My mother went to look after my grandmother at the hospital. Although my father tried hard to fill my mother's place, he had to concentrate on his business also.    We were waiting for a promising word from the doctors, but we received no positive feedback. They said that they would try chemotherapy but that they couldn't promise success. The cancer might destroy her. Meanwhile, the time was shortening. I had to choose between staying in my country or going to the US the mysterious and fascinating place whose pictures and maps decorated my room. The chemotherapy might last an entire year, and my mother had to stay with my grandparents through this process since she was their only child. That meant that my mother wouldn't be with us for one whole year and somebody had to take care of the housework. Since my father needed to support the family by going to his job regularly, I had to stay home to help both him and my little sister.    With this responsibility, I couldn't selfishly leave my family to study in the US. My mother painfully watched her mother become emaciated as the cancer advanced day by day, so I had to be there for her.

Death Penalty Should Be Abolished Essay

The death penalty is a cruel and uncivilized way of keeping crime down to a minimum, by killing anyone who commits a horrible crime such as murder. The most common way of being killed while on death penalty is lethal injection. The death penalty does not change murderers minds whether they should kill someone or not. If people have a mental illness and are psychopaths and enjoy killing i’m sure they never think to themselves and say if I do kill someone then I will go to jail and then be killed. They go through with the murder because that’s what they intended to do from the start. Also in Europe there is no death penalty and research shows that the murder rate is drastically lower than the USA. This shows that the death penalty does not scare murderers out of doing what they want to do. The death penalty is not the best protection form a murderer. It may be the best protection from a specific murderer if he is going to be killed with death penalty because he will not live anymore and so he wouldn’t be alive to kill you. But if you are trying to protect yourself from being murdered the death penalty will not help you at all. It would be like telling someone, while they are in the middle of murdering you, that they shouldn’t do it because once the police find out they’re going to have the death penalty! The murderer would not stop at nothing if his mission was to kill you. Justice for the victim is not achieved through the death penalty. Justice is not achieved because if a man murdered a the son of a husband and wife, and the son was killed, the son is already dead. Just because the murderer is sentenced to the death penalty doesn’t mean that their son will magically come back to life and be the same person he was. He is dead and the murder of the murderer will not do anything but give the husband and wife revenge. To conclude the death penalty should not be allowed there is no perks or cons of having it. It gives no justice to anyone, it isn’t a very effective way of scaring anyone and it most likely wont protect you from any murderer.